Discover top powerful nursing notes on health planning in India and key health committees with their recommendations—essential for B.Sc and GNM Community Health Nursing.

Health Planning in India

1. What is Health Planning?

• Definition: Organizing decisions & actions to improve health services (WHO).
• Goal: Solve health problems using available resources (money, manpower, materials).
• Importance: Without planning, health systems fail to meet people’s needs.

2. Why is Health Planning Needed in India?

• India is the 2nd most populous country → Needs efficient use of resources.
• Many health challenges (diseases, lack of facilities, unequal access).
• Government forms committees to advise on health policies.

3. Steps in Health Planning Cycle

4. Key Challenges in India

• Limited resources vs. huge population.
• Unequal access to healthcare (urban vs. rural).
• Changing disease patterns (e.g., rise in diabetes, heart diseases).

5. Examples of Planning

• Family Budgeting → Controls spending.
• National Health Programs → Like polio eradication, maternal health schemes.

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Contributions of Health Committees in India

1. Bhore Committee (1946)

• Chairman: Sir Joseph Bhore
• Purpose: Improve India’s health system post-independence.
• Recommendations:
• Integration of curative & preventive healthcare.
• Primary Health Centers (PHCs) for rural areas (1 PHC per 40,000 people).
• Three-tier healthcare system:
  1. Primary – PHCs (10,000-20,000 people).
  2. Secondary – 650-bed Regional Health Units (RHUs).
  3. Tertiary – 2,500-bed District Hospitals.
• Training for “social physicians” (3 months in preventive medicine).
• Limitation: Ignored socio-economic factors affecting health.

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2. Mudaliar Committee (1962)

• Chairman: Dr. A.L. Mudaliar
• Purpose: Review Bhore Committee’s progress & suggest improvements.
• Findings:
• Poor rural healthcare (half of India lacked basic facilities).
• Urban bias (more hospitals in cities).
• PHCs understaffed & underfunded.
• Recommendations:
• Strengthen district hospitals for specialist care.
• Improve PHC quality (1 health worker per 10,000 people).
• Integrate medical & health services.

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3. Chadha Committee (1963)

• Chairman: Dr. M.S. Chadha (DGHS).
• Purpose: Maintain malaria control after eradication efforts.
• Recommendations:
• Multipurpose Health Workers (MPHWs) to handle:
  • Malaria surveillance.
  • Family planning.
  • Vital statistics collection.
• 1 BHW (Basic Health Worker) per 10,000 people, supervised by Family Planning Health Assistants (FPHAs).

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4.A. Mukherjee Committee (1965)

• Chairman: Shri Mukherjee.

• Issue: Chadha Committee’s multipurpose workers (MPHWs) failed in malaria + family planning.
• Recommendations:
• Separate malaria & family planning activities.
• Family Planning Health Assistants (FPHAs) should only focus on family planning (no supervision of BHWs).
• Strengthen state health directorates for family planning.

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4.B. Mukherjee Committee (1966)

• Focus: Overburdened health workers (malaria, smallpox, leprosy, family planning).
• Recommendations:
• Multipurpose workers (MPWs) for general health services.
• Integrated approach for all health programs.
• Avoid overloading BHWs to maintain malaria control.

5. Jain Committee (1966-67)

• Chairman: Sri Ajit Prasad Jain

• Recommendation:

•  Study Hospital Categories

• Recommended expansion of medical care services (especially in underserved areas).

•  Review Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS)

• Evaluated CGHS performance (healthcare for govt. employees).
• Suggested improvements for better service delivery.

• Impact: Influenced hospital infrastructure development and CGHS reforms.

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6. Jungalwalla Committee (1967)

Chairman: Dr. N Jungalwalla

• Goal: Integrate health services under one system.
• Key Reforms:
• Unified cadre for doctors (common seniority, equal pay).
• Ban private practice for government doctors.
• Single administrator for medical + public health programs.

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7. Kartar Singh Committee (1973)

Chairman: Kartar Singh

• Focus: Multipurpose workers (MPWs) for efficiency.
• Recommendations:
• 1 PHC per 50,000 people → 16 sub-centres (1 per 3,500 people).
• MPHW Teams:
  • 1 Male Health Worker (MHW) + 1 Female Health Worker (FHW) per sub-centre.
  • 1 Supervisor per 4 workers.
• Replaced ANMs with Female Health Workers (FHWs).

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8. Shrivastav Committee (1975)

• Chairman: Dr. J B Shrivastava

• Goal: Community-based healthcare.
• Key Ideas:
• Train local paraprofessionals (teachers, postmasters) for basic health services.
• Village Health Guides (VHGs) to link communities with PHCs.
• Rural Health Scheme (1977):
  • Medical colleges train students in rural PHCs (“Reorientation of Medical Education” – ROME).
  • 1 male + 1 female health worker per 5,000 people.

9. Mehta Committee (1983)

• Also Known As: Medical Education Review Committee
• Chairman: Shri Mehta

• Key Reports & Recommendations:

•  Part I: Medical Education Reforms

• Focused on improving medical training standards.
• Suggested curriculum updates to match healthcare needs.

•  Part II: Manpower Projections

• Estimated required numbers of:
  • Doctors
  • Nurses
  • Pharmacists
• Aimed to balance supply & demand of medical professionals.

• Impact: Helped shape medical education policies and workforce planning.

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10. Bajaj Committee (1987)

• Chairman: Dr. J.S. Bajaj
• Focus: Improving medical education & health manpower planning

• Recommendations:

• Admissions Reform

• Fair procedures for undergraduate (UG) & postgraduate (PG) medical admissions.

• Course Duration

• Review UG course length & internship.
• Review PG course duration & thesis requirements.

• Residency Scheme

• Improve residency training for hands-on experience.

• Quality Upgrade

• Improve UG & PG medical education standards.

• Impact: Helped streamline medical education policies in India.

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11. Krishnan Committee (1992)

• Chairman: Dr. Krishnan
• Focus: Urban slum healthcare & voluntary health workers

• Recommendations:

• Health Post Scheme

• 1 Voluntary Health Worker (VHW) per 2,000 people (Honorarium: ₹100/month).

• Services Provided by Health Posts:

1. Preventive – Vaccination, sanitation, maternal/child health.
2. Family Planning – Counseling & contraceptive distribution.
3. Curative – Basic treatment for common illnesses.
4. Referral – Link to hospitals for serious cases.
5. Outreach – Health education, motivation for family planning.
6. Record Keeping – Maintain health data for slum populations.

• Impact: Laid the foundation for urban health missions (e.g., National Urban Health Mission).

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GNM

BSC Nursing

Community Health Nursing is shaped by global powerhouses—WHO, UNFPA, UNDP, and World Bank. Learn their impactful roles in improving public health globally.

WHO (World Health Organization)

Overview

• Full Name: World Health Organization (WHO)
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland
• Established: April 7, 1948 (celebrated as World Health Day)
• Membership: 193 countries (as of 2006)
• Goal: To help all people achieve the highest level of health.

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Structure of WHO

WHO has three main parts:

1 World Health Assembly (WHA):

• The main decision-making body.
• Meets once a year in May.
• Includes representatives from all member countries.
• Functions:
  • Sets global health policies.
  • Reviews progress and approves budgets.
  • Chooses the Director-General.

2 Executive Board:

• Made up of 34 health experts.
• Meets twice a year.
• Functions:
  • Carries out decisions made by the WHA.
  • Takes action during health emergencies.

3 Secretariat:

• Led by the Director-General.
• Functions:
  • Provides support to countries for health programs.
  • Manages daily operations.

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Core Functions of WHO

• Set global health standards and policies.
• Track health trends and encourage research.
• Offer technical help to countries.
• Build partnerships for health projects.
• Develop and test new health tools and guidelines.

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Key Achievements

• Smallpox Eradication:
• In 1967, smallpox was a major problem in 31 countries.
• WHO led a worldwide vaccination effort.
• The last case was reported in 1977, and smallpox was declared eradicated in 1980.

Funding

• Funded by member countries based on their ability to pay.
• Richer countries contribute more.

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Functions of WHO

1. Fight diseases and epidemics.
2. Improve health for mothers and children.
3. Encourage cooperation among scientists and health professionals.
4. Conduct health research.
5. Provide health advice and support.

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UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund)

Overview

• Full Name: United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
• Established: Began operations in 1969 (introduced in 1967)
• Headquarters: New York, USA
• Mission: To promote the right of every woman, man, and child to enjoy a life of health, equality, and opportunity.
• Key Focus Areas:

• Reproductive Health
• Gender Equality
• Population and Development Strategies

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History and Evolution

• 1967: Introduced as a trust fund.
• 1969: Officially began operations under UNDP administration.
• 1971: Recognized by the UN General Assembly as a leader in population programs.
• 1979: Declared a subsidiary organ of the UN General Assembly.
• 1987: Name changed to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), but the abbreviation remained the same.
• 1993: Governance shifted to an executive board under the Economic and Social Council.
• 1996: Became a founding co-sponsor of UNAIDS (Joint UN Program on HIV/AIDS).
• 2003: Granted formal authority over personnel matters by the UN Secretary-General.

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Core Areas of Work

1. Reproductive Health:

• Supports governments in providing sexual and reproductive health care.
• Key areas include:
  • Family planning
  • Safe pregnancy and childbirth
  • Prevention and treatment of infertility
  • Prevention and management of unsafe abortion
  • Treatment of reproductive tract infections
  • Prevention and care for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV
  • Education and counseling on reproductive health and sexuality
  • Prevention of violence against women and support for survivors
  • Referrals for specialized care

1. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment:

• Promotes gender equality through:
  • Girls’ education
  • Women’s economic and political empowerment
  • Balancing reproductive and productive roles
• Works to end harmful practices like child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM)
• Addresses gender-based violence and promotes women’s rights in emergencies, climate change, and migration.
• Engages men and boys in promoting gender equality and reproductive health.

• Population and Development Strategies:

1. Assists countries in addressing population challenges, including:
   • Migration
   • Aging populations
   • Climate change
   • Urbanization
2. Helps governments collect and analyze population data to create effective policies.
3. Supports global, regional, and national efforts to manage population dynamics.

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Key Achievements

• Works in over 140 countries to improve reproductive health and rights.
• Plays a leading role in global efforts to:
• Reduce maternal mortality
• Ensure access to family planning
• Combat gender-based violence
• Address population challenges like urbanization and aging.

Funding and Governance

• Funded by voluntary contributions from governments and private donors.
• Governed by an executive board under the UN Economic and Social Council.

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Importance of UNFPA

• UNFPA is a vital organization that works to ensure:

• Every pregnancy is wanted.
• Every childbirth is safe.
• Every young person is free from HIV/AIDS.
• Every girl and woman is treated with dignity and respect.

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)

Overview

• Full Name: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
• Role: The UN’s global development network, connecting countries to knowledge, resources, and expertise to improve lives.
• Mission: To advocate for change and support countries in achieving sustainable development, reducing poverty, and empowering women.
• Focus Areas:

1. Democratic Governance
   • Poverty Reduction
     • Crisis Intervention and Recovery
       • Environment and Energy
         • HIV/AIDS and Development

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Key Goals

• Support the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and national development objectives.
• Improve the lives of the poorest, marginalized, and disadvantaged communities.
• Promote human development through inclusive, equitable, and sustainable growth.

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Areas of Work in India

• Democratic Governance:

• Supports Panchayati Raj institutions (local self-governance) to strengthen democratic processes.
• Helps integrate human development into state and district planning.
• Promotes social, economic, and political inclusion, especially for women and girls.
• Works with 2.8 million local representatives to enhance governance.

• Poverty Reduction:

• Partners with governments to improve skills and livelihoods for deprived households.
• Supports initiatives in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and handicrafts.
• Promotes gender equality through:
  • Mainstreaming gender perspectives in policies.
  • Investing in specific interventions for women’s empowerment.

1. Crisis Intervention and Recovery:

• Strengthens disaster management capacities to reduce vulnerabilities.
• Implements community-based disaster risk management programs.
• Focuses on:
  • Preparedness and early recovery.
  • Institutionalizing disaster risk reduction.
  • Reducing risks in urban areas.

• Environment and Energy:

• Integrates environmental concerns and climate change adaptation into development policies.
• Promotes access to clean energy in rural and remote areas.
• Enhances energy efficiency in sectors like transport, SMEs, and residential areas.
• Supports renewable energy technologies and applications.

• HIV/AIDS and Development:

• Assists India’s National AIDS Control Programme.
• Works to integrate HIV into development responses in vulnerable districts.
• Conducts research on the social dimensions of HIV.
• Supports policies for gender equality and the involvement of people living with HIV.

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Key Achievements

• Played a key role in strengthening Panchayati Raj institutions in India.
• Implemented Asia’s largest community-based disaster risk management program.
• Supported the integration of human development into state and district planning.
• Promoted clean energy and climate change adaptation measures.
• Contributed to India’s efforts in combating HIV/AIDS through research and policy support.

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Importance of UNDP

UNDP works to:

• Empower communities and promote inclusive growth.
• Reduce poverty and inequality.
• Strengthen governance and disaster resilience.
• Address environmental challenges and promote sustainable energy.
• Combat HIV/AIDS and support vulnerable populations.

World Bank

Overview

• Established: 1944
• Headquarters: Washington, D.C., USA
• Mission: To fight poverty and support sustainable development by providing financial and technical assistance to developing countries.
• Structure: Comprises two main institutions:

1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD): Supports middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries.
2. International Development Association (IDA): Focuses on the world’s poorest countries.

• Complementary Institutions:
• International Finance Corporation (IFC)
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
• International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

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Key Functions

• Provides low-interest loans, interest-free credits, and grants to developing countries.
• Funds projects in areas like:
• Education
• Health
• Infrastructure
• Agriculture
• Environmental and natural resource management
• Private sector development
• Shares global expertise and knowledge to address development challenges.

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Governance

• Membership: 187 member countries.
• Board of Governors:
• Composed of finance or development ministers from member countries.
• Meets annually to set policies.
• Executive Directors:
• 25 directors oversee daily operations.
• Five largest shareholders (France, Germany, Japan, UK, and USA) appoint one director each; others are represented by 20 directors.
• President:
• Chairs the Board of Directors.
• Responsible for overall management.
• Traditionally a U.S. national, nominated by the U.S. and selected by the Board for a 5-year term.

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Operations

• Works closely with governments, NGOs, private sectors, and other development partners.
• Focuses on:
• Reducing poverty.
• Promoting sustainable development.
• Building capacity and sharing knowledge.
• Supports countries in achieving their development goals through financing, expertise, and partnerships.

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World Bank in India

• Membership: India is a founding member (joined in 1944).
• Partnerships:
• Works with Central and State Governments.
• Collaborates with NGOs, private sectors, academics, and local communities.
• Focus Areas:
• Infrastructure development.
• Poverty reduction.
• Education and health.
• Environmental sustainability.
• Private sector growth.

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Importance of the World Bank

• A major source of funding and knowledge for developing countries.
• Helps countries achieve long-term development goals.
• Promotes inclusive and sustainable globalization.
• Supports projects that improve living standards and reduce poverty worldwide.

World Bank’s Plan of Action in India

• Country Strategy (CAS):
• Aligns with India’s development priorities, particularly the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-2012).
• Focuses on:
  1. Fast-tracking infrastructure development.
  2. Supporting the seven poorest states (Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh).
  3. Addressing the impact of the global financial crisis.
• Total Proposed Lending: $14 billion for 2009-2012.
• Implementation:
• Provides financial assistance through loans and grants.
• Engages in policy dialogue and analytical work.
• Builds capacity and supports private sector engagement.
• Stakeholder Involvement:
• Developed through consultations with the government, civil society, and other stakeholders.

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FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)

Overview

• Established: 1945
• Headquarters: Rome, Italy
• Mission: To lead international efforts to defeat hunger and improve agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
• Key Objectives:

1. Raise levels of nutrition.
2. Improve agricultural productivity.
3. Enhance the lives of rural populations.
4. Contribute to the growth of the world economy.

Focus Areas

• Rural Development:
• Focuses on rural areas, home to 70% of the world’s poor and hungry.
• Sustainable Agriculture:
• Promotes modern and sustainable practices in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.
• Biotechnology:
• Supports the use of biotechnology for sustainable development.
• Advocates for science-based evaluation of benefits and risks.
• Encourages access to diverse genetic resources.

Key Initiatives

• Biotechnology and Biosafety:
• FAO’s 2000 Statement on Biotechnology highlights:
  • Biotechnology as a tool for sustainable agriculture and food security.
  • Genetic engineering’s potential to increase yields on marginal lands.
• 2003-2004 Report: Focused on agricultural biotechnology to meet the needs of the poor.
• Capacity Building:
• Provides advice and support to member countries on biotechnology and agricultural development.

Role in Global Food Security

• Acts as a neutral forum for nations to negotiate agreements and debate policies.
• Assists developing countries in improving food production and ensuring good nutrition.

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Importance of FAO

• Plays a critical role in addressing global hunger and malnutrition.
• Promotes sustainable agricultural practices to ensure food security.
• Supports rural development and empowers farming communities.
• Advocates for the responsible use of biotechnology to enhance food production.

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

Overview

• Full Name: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
• Established: 1946 (initially as a relief organization for children after World War II)
• Headquarters: New York, USA
• Mission: To defend, promote, and protect children’s rights, especially for the most disadvantaged.
• Core Belief: Every child has the right to:
• Adequate nutrition
• Education
• Health
• Participation
• Protection
• Clean water

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Structure

• Governing Body: Executive Board (36 members representing UN regional groups).
• Provides oversight and approves policies, programs, and budgets.
• Supported by the Office of the Secretary.
• Sessions: Held annually at the UN headquarters in New York.

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Strategic Areas of Work

UNICEF’s work is aligned with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and focuses on five interrelated areas:

1. Young Child Survival and Development:

• Focus: Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) and combat diseases like malaria (MDG 6).
• Key Activities:
  • Immunization programs (e.g., measles, polio).
  • Nutrition support (e.g., vitamin A supplements).
  • Maternal and neonatal care (antenatal and postnatal care).
  • Prevention of diseases like diarrhoea and malaria.

1. Basic Education and Gender Equality:

• Focus: Achieve universal primary education (MDG 2) and promote gender equality (MDG 3).
• Key Activities:
  • Improve school readiness for disadvantaged children.
  • Reduce gender gaps in education.
  • Provide school supplies and create child-friendly learning environments.
  • Support water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools.

1. HIV/AIDS and Children:

• Focus: Combat HIV/AIDS (MDG 6).
• Key Activities:
  • Prevention education for adolescents.
  • Support for children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.
  • Programs to prevent mother-to-child transmission.
  • Increase access to antiretroviral drugs.

1. Child Protection:

• Focus: Protect children from violence, exploitation, and abuse.
• Key Activities:
  • Advocate for laws to protect children.
  • Strengthen community and family resources.
  • Support marginalized children, including those affected by HIV/AIDS.

1. Policy Analysis, Advocacy, and Partnerships for Children’s Rights:

• Focus: Promote global partnerships (MDG 8) and strengthen policies for children’s rights.
• Key Activities:
  • Advocate for investments in children’s well-being.
  • Conduct research and monitor progress.
  • Promote children’s participation in decision-making.

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Progress and Challenges

• Progress:
• UNICEF has made significant strides in improving child survival, education, and protection.
• Vaccination programs have saved millions of lives.
• Advocacy has led to stronger child protection laws.
• Challenges:
• Millions of children still lack access to basic needs like education, healthcare, and clean water.
• Achieving the MDGs by 2015 requires stronger global commitment.

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Importance of UNICEF

• UNICEF plays a critical role in ensuring children’s rights are met.
• By focusing on survival, development, and protection, UNICEF helps break the cycle of poverty.
• Its work contributes to global peace and development by investing in the future of children.

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UNICEF and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

MDG	UNICEF Focus Area
Goal 1: Poverty and hunger	Young Child Survival and Development
Goal 2: Universal education	Basic Education and Gender Equality
Goal 3: Gender equality	Basic Education and Gender Equality
Goal 4: Child mortality	Young Child Survival and Development
Goal 5: Maternal health	Young Child Survival and Development
Goal 6: HIV/AIDS, malaria	HIV/AIDS and Children
Goal 7: Environmental sustainability	Water and Sanitation
Goal 8: Global partnerships	Policy Analysis, Advocacy, and Partnerships

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DANIDA (Danish International Development Agency)

Overview

• Full Name: Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)
• Parent Organization: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark
• Established: To provide humanitarian aid and development assistance to developing countries.
• Focus Areas:

1. Human Rights and Democracy
2. Green Growth
3. Social Progress
4. Stability and Protection

Key Activities

• Works with nonprofit organizations in developing countries like India.
• Provides support for programs such as the National Blindness Control Programme since 1978.
• Operates in 73 countries and regions (as of 2015), with 21 high-priority countries (mostly in Africa and Asia).

Importance

• DANIDA plays a crucial role in addressing poverty and promoting sustainable development in some of the world’s poorest regions.
• Focuses on long-term development goals while addressing immediate humanitarian needs.

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European Commission (EC)

Overview

• Role: The executive arm of the European Union (EU), responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, and managing EU policies.
• Structure:
• 28 Commissioners (one from each EU country).
• Led by the Commission President (as of 2017, Jean-Claude Juncker).
• Includes 7 Vice-Presidents and 20 Commissioners overseeing specific policy areas.
• Term: The Commission’s term runs for 5 years (current term until October 31, 2019).

Key Functions

• Proposing Legislation:

• Drafts laws for adoption by the European Parliament and Council of the EU.
• Focuses on issues that cannot be effectively addressed at the national level.

• Managing EU Policies and Funding:

• Sets EU spending priorities and drafts annual budgets.
• Supervises the allocation and use of EU funds.

• Enforcing EU Law:

• Ensures EU laws are properly applied in all member countries.
• Works with the Court of Justice to address violations.

• Representing the EU Internationally:

• Speaks on behalf of EU countries in international organizations.
• Negotiates international agreements, particularly in trade and humanitarian aid.

Importance

• The EC ensures the smooth functioning of the EU. It does this by proposing and enforcing laws, managing budgets, and representing the EU globally.
  • Plays a key role in addressing transnational issues and promoting cooperation among member states.

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USAID (United States Agency for International Development)

Overview

• Full Name: United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
• Established: 1961 by President John F. Kennedy
• Purpose: To provide economic development and humanitarian assistance to advance U.S. economic and political interests globally.
• Key Focus Areas:

1. Promoting economic growth
2. Advancing democracy
3. Delivering humanitarian assistance
4. Protecting public health and supporting family planning
5. Protecting the environment

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Key Activities

USAID is a global leader in providing assistance during crises such as floods, famines, and conflicts. It also supports long-term development programs in health, education, and economic growth.

Health Programs

USAID has been a pioneer in improving global health, particularly in child and maternal health. Key initiatives include:

1. Child Health Programs:

• Prevents over 4 million infant and child deaths annually.
• Focus areas:
  • Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT): Developed with USAID support to treat diarrhoea.
  • Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI): Supports diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine research.
  • Immunization: Protects children from diseases like measles, polio, and tuberculosis.
  • Breastfeeding: Promotes breastfeeding through “baby-friendly” hospitals.
  • Vitamin A Supplementation: Reduces child mortality in deficient populations.
  • Malaria Control: Conducts research and implements programs in countries like India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
  • Maternal Health: Reduces maternal mortality through training, safe birthing techniques, and tetanus immunisation.

• Family Planning:

• Supports access to family planning information and services.
• Over 50 million couples use family planning due to USAID programs.
• Helps reduce maternal mortality and prevent HIV/AIDS through condom promotion.

• HIV/AIDS Prevention:

• Operates in 50 countries.
• Provides education, training, and condom distribution.
• Focuses on behavior change and integrating HIV/AIDS into national planning.

• Displaced Children and Orphans:

• Assists children separated by war, AIDS, or social crises.
• Reunites families and provides support in countries like Ethiopia, Liberia, and Rwanda.

Innovations in Health Technologies

• Develops cost-effective health technologies, such as:
• Single-use, self-destruct syringes to prevent disease transmission.
• Low-cost delivery kits for safe home births.
• Tools for detecting low birth weight and other health risks.

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Importance of USAID

• Plays a critical role in addressing global health challenges, reducing poverty, and promoting democracy.
• Saves millions of lives through health programs and humanitarian aid.
• Supports long-term development by strengthening healthcare systems, promoting education, and fostering economic growth.
• Advances U.S. foreign policy objectives by building partnerships and improving global stability.

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Key Achievements

• Child Survival: Over 4 million child deaths prevented annually.
• Family Planning: Over 50 million couples using family planning services.
• HIV/AIDS Prevention: Programs in 50 countries to combat the epidemic.
• Humanitarian Aid: Assistance to victims of war, famine, and natural disasters.

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UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

Overview

• Full Name: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• Headquarters: Paris, France
• Established: 1945
• Mission: To promote peace, sustainable development, and intercultural dialogue through education, science, culture, and communication.
• Core Goals:

• Build peace through education, culture, and science.
• Eradicate poverty.
• Promote sustainable development.
• Foster intercultural dialogue.

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Key Focus Areas

• Education:

• Ensure quality education for all and promote lifelong learning.
• Support initiatives to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) related to education.

1. Science:

• Mobilize scientific knowledge for sustainable development.
• Address emerging social and ethical challenges through science.

• Culture:

• Promote cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue.
• Protect cultural heritage and foster a culture of peace.

• Communication and Information:

• Build inclusive knowledge societies.
• Promote freedom of expression and access to information.

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Structure

• General Conference:

• The supreme decision-making body.
• Meets every two years.
• Composed of representatives from all member states.
• Functions:
  • Sets policies and programs.
  • Approves the budget.
  • Elects the Executive Board and appoints the Director-General.

• Executive Board:

• Ensures the implementation of decisions made by the General Conference.
• Composed of 58 members elected by the General Conference.
• Represents diverse cultures and geographical regions.

• National Commissions:

• Established by member states to link UNESCO with governmental and non-governmental organizations.
• Over 369 National Commissions worldwide.

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Key Activities

• Education:
• Promotes universal access to quality education.
• Supports teacher training and curriculum development.
• Science:
• Funds research on climate change, water management, and renewable energy.
• Promotes ethical standards in science and technology.
• Culture:
• Protects world heritage sites and intangible cultural heritage.
• Encourages cultural exchange and creativity.
• Communication:
• Promotes media literacy and freedom of the press.
• Supports access to information and communication technologies (ICTs).

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Importance of UNESCO

• Plays a vital role in promoting global peace and sustainable development.
• Bridges cultural divides and fosters mutual understanding.
• Protects cultural and natural heritage for future generations.
• Advances education and scientific research to address global challenges.

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Achievements

• Education:
• Contributed to the global increase in literacy rates.
• Supported the Education for All (EFA) initiative.
• Science:
• Led efforts in oceanographic research and environmental protection.
• Promoted ethical guidelines for scientific research.
• Culture:
• Designated over 1,000 World Heritage Sites.
• Safeguarded intangible cultural heritage like traditional music and crafts.
• Communication:
• Promoted freedom of expression and access to information worldwide.

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COURSES

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BSC NURSING

Learn about disease distribution, frequency, epidemiological models, and the aims of epidemiology in this essential guide for 5th-semester B.Sc Nursing students.

Distribution and Frequency of Diseases –

Epidemiology is the study of how diseases spread, their causes, and how to control them in human populations. Different experts have defined it in various ways:

Three Main Components of Epidemiology:

1. Disease Frequency:
   • Measures how often a disease occurs (prevalence, incidence, death rates).
   • Helps find disease causes and develop prevention strategies.
   • Uses statistics to analyze health-related data (e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol levels).
2. Disease Distribution:
   • Studies how diseases spread in different groups based on time, place, and people.
   • Helps in forming disease prevention strategies.
   • This is known as descriptive epidemiology.
3. Disease Determinants:
   • Identifies the causes and risk factors of diseases.
   • Uses research to develop health policies and interventions.
   • This is called analytic epidemiology.

Importance of Epidemiology:

• Helps in disease prevention and control.
• Identifies risk factors for chronic diseases like cancer and heart disease.
• Guides public health policies and healthcare improvements.

Aims and Uses of Epidemiology –

Aims of Epidemiology:

According to the International Epidemiological Association, epidemiology has three main aims:

1. Describe the distribution and magnitude of health and disease in populations.
2. Identify the causes (etiological factors) of diseases.
3. Provide data for planning, implementing, and evaluating disease prevention, control, and treatment programs.

The ultimate goal of epidemiology is to:

• Reduce or eliminate health problems.
• Improve public health and well-being.

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Uses of Epidemiology:

Epidemiology is useful for studying diseases, health conditions, and healthcare services.

According to Thrushfield (1995), epidemiology helps in:

1. Finding the cause of diseases with known origins (e.g., laboratory tests, clinical procedures).
2. Investigating and controlling unknown diseases (e.g., Edward Jenner’s discovery of the smallpox vaccine).
3. Understanding disease ecology and natural history (e.g., studying infectious and non-infectious diseases in different environments).
4. Planning and monitoring disease control programs (e.g., using data for public health surveillance).

According to Morris, epidemiology is used to:

1. Study disease trends (how diseases increase or decrease over time).
2. Diagnose community health problems (measuring disease impact using morbidity and mortality rates).
3. Plan and evaluate health programs (checking if disease prevention efforts are effective).
4. Assess individual risk (determining chances of developing diseases).
5. Identify syndromes (grouping symptoms to define diseases).
6. Understand the natural history of diseases (how diseases progress from infection to recovery or complications).
7. Find causes and risk factors (e.g., linking rubella to congenital birth defects).

Epidemiological Models of Disease Causation

Concept of Disease Causation

• Disease is the opposite of health, causing disharmony and abnormal body function.
• It can range from mild biochemical disturbances to severe conditions leading to death.
• Disease can be caused by multiple factors, including biological, environmental, and social influences.
• Definitions:
  • Webster: A condition where health is impaired, affecting vital functions.
  • Oxford: Disruption in normal body function.
  • Ecological View: A maladjustment of humans to their environment.
  • Sociological View: A social phenomenon shaped by culture and society.
• Disease can vary in onset, severity, and outcome (recovery, disability, or death).

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Theories and Models of Disease Causation

1. Early Theories

• Supernatural Theory: Diseases were believed to be divine punishment.
• Miasmatic Theory: Diseases were caused by “bad air” or mists.
• Environmental Theory: Hippocrates suggested that harmful substances in the environment cause disease.
• Theory of Contagion & Humors: Disease spread through contact or body fluid imbalances (Tridosha concept in Ayurveda).

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2. Germ Theory (19th–20th Century)

• Louis Pasteur & Robert Koch discovered microorganisms as causes of disease.
• Each disease was linked to a specific microorganism (e.g., Cholera – Vibrio cholerae).
• Later, it was found that not everyone exposed to germs got sick, indicating other factors play a role.

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3. Epidemiological Triad Model

• Disease results from an interaction between three factors:
  1. Agent: The cause (bacteria, virus, chemical, etc.).
  2. Host: The individual who can get the disease.
  3. Environment: External factors that influence exposure and spread.
• Example: Tuberculosis only affects people with low immunity or poor living conditions.

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4. Multifactorial Causation Theory

• Many diseases (e.g., heart disease, diabetes, mental illness) result from multiple causes.
• Example: Coronary Heart Disease
  • Causes: Smoking, high cholesterol diet, stress, lack of exercise, genetic factors.
  • Prevention: Healthy diet, exercise, stress management.

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5. Web of Causation Model

• Developed by Mac Mahon & Pugh
• Diseases are caused by multiple interacting factors rather than a single cause.
• Example: Cardiovascular Diseases
  • Factors: Overeating → Obesity → High cholesterol → Artery damage → Heart disease.
• Used for complex diseases like cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.

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Transmission:

Disease Transmission

Disease transmission refers to how infectious diseases spread from a source to a susceptible host. There are three key links in this process:

1. Reservoir (Source of Infection) – Where the disease-causing agent lives and multiplies.
2. Modes of Transmission – How the infectious agent moves from the source to a new host.
3. Susceptible Host – A person or animal that can get infected.

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1. Reservoirs of Infection

A reservoir is where an infectious agent lives, grows, and multiplies before infecting a new host.

Types of Reservoirs:

• Human Reservoir: Most communicable diseases spread from humans.
  • Cases: People who have the disease.
    • Clinical Cases: Show symptoms (mild, moderate, severe).
    • Subclinical Cases: Have the infection but no symptoms, still contagious.
  • Carriers: Infected people who do not show symptoms but spread the disease.
    • Incubatory Carrier: Spreads disease before symptoms appear (e.g., measles).
    • Convalescent Carrier: Spreads disease while recovering (e.g., typhoid fever).
    • Chronic Carrier: Spreads disease for a long time (e.g., hepatitis B).
• Animal Reservoir: Some diseases spread from animals to humans (zoonoses), e.g., rabies, influenza.
• Non-living Reservoirs:
  • Soil: Can harbor bacteria like tetanus and anthrax.
  • Water/Food: Can carry diseases like cholera and typhoid fever.

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COURSES

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BSC NURSING